Tag: John Mearsheimer

现实版的黑暗森林理论

读过《三体》的大概都知道什么是黑暗森林理论。

芝加哥大学的John Mearsheimer 是国际关系方面,所谓“进攻式现实主义”(Offensive Realism)的首创者。基于他的理论,从五条类似公理的原则出发,他说他必然推导出类似 “中国不可能和平崛起,中美必有一战” 的结论。他的五条“公理”如下。

1) 国家之上更无权威(No higher authority over the states), 或者说国家之间是无政府状态(International Anarchy)。联合国是狗屎。

2) 每个国家都有一定的军事进攻能力 (Every states has some offensive capabilities).

3) 国家从来无法确定其他国家的意图,尤其无法确定其将来的意图。(States can never be sure about the intention of the other states, and they certainly can not be sure of the future intention of the other states)

4) 生存第一 (The principle goal of the state is to survive)

5) 国家是理性的现实主义者,是精明的策略算计者 (State is a rational actor, a strategy calculator)

简单地说,这个地球村里住着的国家,互相之间无法确定对方是好人坏人,而人人多少都有使坏的能力,加之这个村里又没有警察,于是人人都对他人有高度的猜疑戒备。这就是典型的黑森林理论中的猜疑链了。而作为一个理性的利己主义者,你最好的生存策略就是在势力范围内谋求绝对的掌控权(Domination offers the best way to survive under international anarchy),也就是谋求地区霸权(regional hegemony)

所以Mearsheimer 说中国会谋求地区霸权既不是因为国内政治,也不是意识形态的需要,而简单地因为中国是一个理性的现实主义者而已。在其《The Tragedy of Great Power Politics》一书中他说

“These ambitious goals make good strategic sense for China (although this is not to say China will necessarily be able to achieve them). Beijing should want a militarily weak and isolated India, Japan, and Russia as its neighbors, just as the United States prefers a militarily weak Canada and Mexico on its borders. What state in its right mind would want other powerful countries located in its region? All Chinese surely remember what happened over the last century when Japan was powerful and China was weak…[They also] surely remember what happened in the hundred years between the First Opium War (1832-42) and the end of World War II (1945), when the United States and the European great powers took advantage of a weak China and not only violated its sovereignty but also imposed unfair treaties on it and exploited it economically. Why should we expect China to act differently than the United States? Are the Chinese more principled than we are? More ethical? Are they less nationalistic? Less concerned about their survival? They are none of these things, of course, which is why China is likely to follow basic realist logic and attempt to become a regional hegemon in Asia (pp. 374-375).”

Mearsheimer还说,他的理论的一个直接推论就是,那种认为一旦中国变得自由民主,与西方有相同的意识形态,价值观后,中美矛盾冲突就会消失的论调是幻想(Delusion)。同样的,西方世界以为向全球推广自由民主会带来世界和平也是Great Delusion。这也就是他的新书《The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities》所论。

Mearsheimer认为,对他的有关中美必有一战的结论的比较有力的挑战有两条,一是核战相互毁灭的核约束,二是中美间经济的深度嵌套。

就我而言,显然是屁股决定脑袋,满满是Wishful Thinking. 我总认为中美关系不是零和博弈,完全可以既竞争,又合作。只要避免双方直接的热战,双方大可在经济,贸易,科技,文化,金融等领域全面竞争。一如当年赫鲁晓夫所说的和平竞赛。对双方都未必是坏事。 相信十年后中美能够重新学会如何相处,然后是一个中美共治的局面。

未来十年大概充满挑战,我觉得关键是中美双方都要各自重新建立自信。美国目前明显处于一个迷失自信的时期,七伤拳打得毫无章法。中国的不自信则在下是民众过激的民族情绪,在上是对内过分的严控,完全没有体现出“制度自信,道路自信”。不自信正是猜疑链的起点。一贯强调军事强权的 Stephen Rosen 有一句经常挂在嘴边的话 Ethical behavior is the luxury of the strong (善行是强者才能拥有的奢侈品)。 而这里的Strong 是preception 意义上的 Strong。强人必须自信自己强才能有善行。

不论是John Mearsheimer 还是提出修斯迪特陷阱的 Graham Allison,他们都认为中美有结构性的矛盾,学理上冲突不可避免。但现实层面上他们又都希望中美能够有足够的智慧,跳出猜疑链螺旋向下的漩涡,避免两败俱伤的最差博弈结果。我曾看过一段 Graham Allison 接受一个极右翼网站的采访视频,其中主持人一再地诱导,希望Allison 说出中美注定一战之类的话,但Allison 还是一再谨慎地说,他认为中美能有足够的智慧,避免战争。

数年前,从加州死亡谷国家公园出来,经过二战时关押美籍日本人的Manzanar集中营,不觉心戚戚焉。

希望历史不重演。